AP US: The Civil War (1861-1865)

Election of 1860

• Democratic Party meets in Charleston, SC to choose their candidate for the Presidency
  • the leading candidate is Stephen Douglass, from Illinois
  • the Southerners present don't want to nominate a Northerner, so they demand that Douglas publicly promise not to limit the extension of slavery, and some demand that he fully support slavery
  • many delegates decide to leave, and a candidate is not yet chosen
• 2 weeks following the first convention, they meet in Baltimore
  • the Democratic Party is fractured into three:
    • the North and South fail to agree and separate
    • in the North, the Democrats choose Stephen A. Douglas, who agrees to stay with the Freeport Doctrine
    • in the South, they rename to Southern Democrats and choose Breckinridge, Buchanan's Vice President
    • a third Democratic party, the Constitutional Union Party, also forms
      • former Whigs from upper South and border states
      • didn't share the convictions of the Southern Democrats
      • also include Northern Whigs who left the Republican Party
      • nominate John Bell from Tennessee
• Republican Party
  • meet in Chicago, Illinois
  • put together a platform that will be favourable to people in both the North and the West
  • they propose:
    • Homestead Law - free land for settlers
    • high tariffs - assist manufacturers
    • a railroad to the Pacific with Federal money
  • they declare that the "normal condition" of a territory of the United States is that of freedom; while they won't limit slavery where it currently exists, they won't allow its expansion
  • most had believed Seward would be selected, but Lincoln was chosen instead
  • they wanted victory this year, and they were confident
  • there was a general opinion that Seward couldn't lead, and they were in Chicago, so Lincoln was selected
• Two Campaigns
  • Breckinridge and Bell fight for the Southern vote
  • Lincoln and Douglas fight in the North
    • Douglas campaigns throughout the North, while Lincoln remains quietly in Springfield
    • it becomes evident that Douglas won't win, so towards the end, he drops his own campaign and instead begins to negotiate with the South to stop threats of secession
• Results
  • Lincoln wins with 1.8 million votes, or about 40% (there won't be a majority with four candidates running)
  • while Northerners celebrate, Southerners plan to dissolve the Union

Crittenden Compromise

• Senator Crittenden, from Kentucky, proposes amending the Constitution to pacify the South
• his plan will prohibit slavery north of 36° 30', protecting slavery everywhere in the South
  • this was the line of the Missouri Compromise
  • Taney's Dred Scott Obiter Dictum had said that Congress has no right to regulate property, that is, slaves
  • this amendment would be the only way to overcome the Court's declaration of "unconstitutional"; adding it to the Constitution makes it constitutional
• states entering the Union after the amendment could decide to be for or against slavery on their own, either north or south of the line
• many believed that it could have appeased the South and slavery
• Lincoln rejected it, saying that it would create an eternal conflict for all land south of the US, all the way to Tierra del Fuego
  • he isn't yet President, and so doesn't have a veto, but he can still influence his party
  • he felt that he needed to oppose it because his platform had been against the expansion of slavery - "Honest Abe" mentality
• no other attempts at compromise will be made following this

Buchanan as "Lame Duck"

• after Lincoln's election, Buchanan becomes "official" lame duck
• the South feared that slavery would be restricted or outlawed, and began to discuss independence: their own banks, trade with Europe, etc.
• the South Carolina legislature called for a special convention and unanimously voted to secede from the Union
  • in late December, they voted to take control of Federal buildings
  • by January 1861, most of the South had seceded
  • in February, Texas also seceded
  • Lincoln can do nothing - he's not President yet
• in February 1861, leaders form the seceding states met in Montgomery, Alabama and established the Confederate States of America (CSA)
  • they selected Jefferson Davis, a former Senator who had attended West Point and had much military and administrative experience, as President
• 4 March 1861: a small crowd gathered in Washington, D.C. to watch Lincoln be sworn in
  • Lincoln's inaugural address calls for the South to return to the Union and be treated as a friend; the friendship of the North and the South is strained, not broken
  • emphasised that he would not interfere with slavery where it already exists
  • reminds them that secession is illegal
  • he ends his speech by telling the secessionists that "in your hands, not mine" is the issue of civil war

The Attack on Fort Sumter (Charleston, South Carolina 12-13 April 1861)

• Major Robert Anderson informed his seniors that they only had 4-6 weeks of supplies remaining, believing that Lincoln would order an evacuation
• Lincoln decided to send unarmed boats to Charleston Harbour with supplies - and not reinforcements
• neither Lincoln or Davis wanted to order the first strike, but gaining Sumter was key to the Southern strategy
• Davis ordered the soldiers to evacuate, but they refused
• Southern troops bombarded the troop for 34 hours before the Union troops surrendered
• after this, war was inevitable
• Lincoln called on the border states to help suppress the rebellion
  • Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas secede, and there are now 11 Confederate states
  • Lincoln shifts his attention from finding a peaceful end to mobilising the army, and calls for 75,000 militia, thinking it will be a short war
  • the South considers his arming to be a declaration of war
  • nearly 1/3 of the US officers left and joined the Confederacy, including "Stonewall" Jackson and Robert E. Lee (who had been offered command of all Union forces but left with his state, Virginia)
• both sides are eager to fight
  • believed the war would only last a few months
  • Lincoln asked for volunteers with a 3-month agreement

Numbers

• fewer than 20,000 in the Northern Army as war began, and many of these went South
• Lincoln is able to call for 75,000 volunteers to start the war, whereas the South relies on militias to establish their army and navy
• the North has more population, money, factories, crops, railroads
  • they have such an overwhelming advantage that the South is forced to fight a largely defensive war
  • however, a defensive war makes a longer war, and the South doesn't have the resources for an extended conflict
  • the South also hopes for British or French support

Map in 1861

• the Confederate capital was moved to Richmond to involve the border states
• these border states (Missouri, Kentucky, West Virginia, Maryland, and Delaware) will be crucial
  • proximity to capitals
  • navigable rivers
  • resources: horses, mules, factories, huge population
• West Virginia was created from Virginia in 1863
  • Virginia had seceded, and so no longer had the protection of the Constitution that required a state's permission to separate it
  • West Virginia wanted to remain in the Union, so they were made a state

The Anaconda Plan

• General Winfield Scott, of Mexican-American War fame, created the Anaconda Plan
• the plan called for a gradual "strangling" of the South by:
  • blockading the coasts
  • "squeezing" the South by attacking from the West and the North
  • capturing the Mississippi River to split the South in half

Battle of Bull Run / First Manassas (21 July 1861)

• Union troops, led by General McDowell, were eager for action, calling "On to Richmond!"
• as they moved towards Bull Run, on the way to Richmond, it was believed that the battle would be an easy win for the North
• however, the Union troops were inexperienced, whereas the Confederate troops had more fighting experience and were determined to protect their homeland
• a Virginia brigade led by Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson counter-attacked, pushing the Union back
• many Union soldiers simply ran from the battlefield
• this became a boost for Southern morale, slightly altering their plan for a defensive war
  • they believed that they had better training and military superiority
  • this battle made the South over-confident, and led to a drop in enlistments
• causes the Union to regroup and re-plan
  • make plans for a longer and more difficult war
  • Congress authorised the enlistment of 500,000 troops for three years of service
  • Lincoln appoints McClellan to lead the Army of the Potomac
• General George McClellan
  • a well-liked, passionate leader with strong military credentials
  • he had sound strategies, on paper
  • he as overly cautious, and never wanted to commit his forces - he was always convinced that the enemy had more troops, or reinforcements on the way, or some other advantage
  • Lincoln eventually had to order McClellan to advance, in the Peninsular Campaign
  • ultimately, he wouldn't be good enough, and was fired

Battle of the Ironclads / Battle of Hampton Roads (8-9 March 1862)

• history's first battle between armoured ships
• the USS Monitor versus the CSS Virginia (rebuilt from the remains of the USS Merrimack)
• the Merrimack sank one ship with its ram, one with its guns; it also ran some ships aground while they were fleeing the ironclad
• this was considered the worst day in US Naval History until 7 December 1941 (Pearl Harbour)
• the rest of the fleet was saved by the arrival of the Union's ironclad, the Monitor
• the Monitor was smaller than the Merrimack, presenting a smaller target; it had only two eleven-inch guns in a revolving turret (a new innovation)
• the battle was technically a draw, but the Merrimack returned to Virginia and never returned to battle; it was later destroyed by Confederate troops to prevent its capture by the advancing Union army
• Southern engineers made several noteworthy naval accomplishments:
  • the H.L. Hunley sank a ship in Charleston, being the first battle submarine
  • ironclad rams were used to break the Union blockade
  • they built the first ironclad vessel, the Virginia / Merrimack
  • "torpedoes", or mines, sank more than 40 ships
• this battle had a profound effect on naval history
  • the era of the wooden ship is gone
  • by war's end, the North had built another 60 ships of the Monitor class
  • the British and French had also been working on similar designs

Conscription

• because of the length of the war and the lack of volunteers, both sides were forced to initiate conscription, the South about a year before the North
• those who were conscripted in the North had the option to pay another to take their place; wealthy families paid poorer ones as substitutes
• on both sides, but more so in the North, the people were strongly opposed to the draft
• some of the worst draft riots in US History were those that occurred in New York during this period
• in most wars, excitement over the war wears off quickly and the draft becomes necessary

Basic Causes of the Civil War

• Slavery
  • the North came to morally oppose slavery, accepting the idea of war to end the curse of slavery
  • without slavery, issues might not have come to a sufficiently decisive point to cause the war
  • the North didn't offer any real solutions, they just opposed it
• Different ways of life
  • different social and economic systems lead to misunderstandings
  • the North is an expanding commercial and manufacturing society based on free labour
  • the South is a stable agricultural society based on slave labour and the plantation system
  • the South views themselves with "Southern nationalism", feeling that a different society needs different institutions
• Sectionalism
  • sectionalism began to be an issue about 1820, as shown by the Missouri Compromise
  • tariffs, the central bank, the railroads, states' rights, and other issues come into play
  • states' rights comes to be the primary problem
• Declining Southern influence in government
  • the South saw a struggle with the North for control, which they were losing
  • with the North's growth, Congress became more unequal
  • they viewed Lincoln as a last straw
  • Pierce and Buchanan (before Lincoln) were both Northerners, but their less-strong ideas about slavery were acceptable to the South
  • the Republicans, and Lincoln, strongly opposed the extension of slavery
• Weakness in leadership
  • with the deaths of Calhoun, Clay, Webster - the "great triumvirate" - no other leaders of compromisers appear
  • leaders nor inflame public opinion, mislead, etc.
  • some suggest that with good leaders, the Civil War could have been avoided

Characteristics of the Civil War

• this was close to the last time that cavalry participated in a major war
• the first "modern" war
  • railroads were used to move troops and supplies
  • the concept of trench warfare was introduced, but not used too widely
  • total war - civilians shared the burden of war with the military, especially in the war-torn South; the Union will adopt a scorched-earth policy, burning Southern land as they advanced
  • heavy casualties on both sides

Advantages

• The North
  • a strong central government; it was also the one that was recognised by the world, making it easier to deal with foreign nations
  • more population, resources, money, and transportation (the railroads)
  • more food - the West produced an excess of grains, allowing them to eat and trade overseas
  • manufacturing - most mines and factories were in the North, although the South would develop some of their own as the war progressed
  • skilled labour
• The South
  • they were fighting on their own land, so the terrain was more familiar and they were inspired by the thought of being on the defensive (feels more righteous; defending their own lands and families instead of invading others')
  • superior military leaders and soldiers, at least initially
    • the North was industrial, with less time spent hunting and handling weapons, whereas the South had a fighting, shooting tradition
    • the Northern army would develop as the war progressed, and become better disciplined and better trained
  • large slave population, which will continue to produce food and free males for military service
  • they hoped that the border states, France, and England would help
    • they lost four of the border states at the start of the war
    • no help materialised from France
    • some help came from England, but very little, as they were trying to preserve neutrality
    • the South had believed that England would be forced to help due to ties to the cotton industry; however, there had been so much trade that there was an excess of cotton in England for a while, and then Egypt developed as an alternative source for cotton

The War as a Major Event

• establishes a permanent, complete stabilisation of the Union
• slavery is abolished
• the nation's interests shift
• some wounds have yet to heal today; for example, there still are debates over the Confederate flag

Problems for Both Sides

• both sides need money to fund the war
  • the North
    • increases tariffs
    • issues unbacked paper money, or "greenbacks"; their value will fluctuate based on the Union's success in the war
    • sells bonds; by 1863, Congress established a national banking system to help sell bonds, allowing any 5 persons with adequate funds to create a bank, provided that they invest one third of their capital in government bonds
      • highly successful in raising money for government
  • the South
    • had hoped that they could raise money through cotton sales, but this was limited by the Union blockade; also, Europe found other sources of cotton
    • sell bonds, levy taxes, issue paper money
    • bonds and paper declined rapidly in value
    • taxes were too difficult to collect, as no one had any money to pay
• production of goods
  • the North could, but the South didn't have the necessary resources
    • the war stimulated Northern production
    • their ability to produce guns, uniforms, etc. helped the North to win the war
    • the Northern and Western farms produced enough food for home consumption and exports
  • the South could produce sufficient arms and ammunition, but everything else was in short supply, including serious shortages of food, clothing, and sanitary supplies
• the draft / conscription
  • in the initial stages, the war was seen as glamorous and there were many volunteers
  • later, less men volunteered for service
  • both sides allowed men to pay for exemptions to the draft, either by simply paying a fee or by paying someone else to serve in his stead
  • it became a "poor man's war"
  • there were some of the most serious draft riots in US history, notably the 1863 riot in New York
• broad wartime powers for government
  • the Confederate government forced citizens to contribute food, slaves, wagons, mules, etc.
  • the Northern government took over the railroad near war zones
  • both Lincoln and Davis were accused of being dictatorial
    • Davis was limited by the the strong states' rights ideals of the South
    • Lincoln was more able to exercise unlimited power
  • Lincoln was very powerful
    • however, he didn't take over the army
    • he did impinge on civil liberties
    • with only Congress in power, no decisions would be made; to many, in time of war, one leader is needed to make decisions
    • after Fort Sumter, he expanded the army; he is Commander in Chief, but according to the Constitution, Congress appropriates funds and decides size of army; he took action without Congress (they would later approve)
    • suspended the writ of habeas corpus in some districts, notably Maryland
    • authorised trial of citizens in military courts
    • placed limitations on speech and press
    • defended these actions by saying that swift and decisive action was needed during a national crisis
    • he argued that these moves were essential for the good of the nation
    • however, he made no attempts to interfere with free elections
    • it was not a concerted effort against Congress, it just happened
    • Congress also passed laws of their own, establishing a banking system, admitting West Virginia as a state, etc.
    • he argued that his actions were designed specifically to preserve the union, not to achieve his own policy
  • Jefferson Davis
    • some accused him of trying to become dictatorial
    • but the South wouldn't allow that, as states' rights were too strong
    • states ignored requests from the central government
    • the confederal form of government severely weakened the Confederates
• foreign policy
  • the Northern government is internationally recognised as the government of the United States
  • they have diplomatic involvement with Britain, France, Russia, etc.
  • they fear British or French support for the South
  • both Britain and France recognise that the North is the legitimate government; if they support the South and lose, there will be troubles
  • Great Britain
    • the Confederates believe that Britain really needs Southern cotton, and expect all-out support from them
      • a rural nation would also be less threatening to Britain, and British aristocrats weren't fond of democracy
      • also, a split American continent would be beneficial for European powers
    • Britain will recognise and aid the South in the early years of the war while remaining "neutral"
    • Trent Affair (1861)
      • a Union warship stopped the HMS Trent in the Caribbean and removed two Confederate diplomats, Mason and Slidell
      • the Britain government demanded their release, even through they're Confederate diplomats on a British ship
      • Britain claims violation of neutral rights, rather ironic given their violation of their own neutrality; this also hearkens back to impressment leading up to the War of 1812
      • however, in 1861, the US wasn't sure where the border states, Britain, and France will fall; so, Lincoln order the release of the Confederate agents
    • later in the war, the British offences become very offensive
    • they begin to sell cruisers to the Confederates
    • the question becomes how far the US is willing to push the neutrality issue
    • after the war, the Alabama Claims ask for damages from Britain, and the US wins $15 million; Britain doesn't argue, as they know they were in the wrong, and there's not much the US can/wants to do about it
    • manufacturers
      • get cotton elsewhere than from the South
      • make a profit selling to both the North and the South
    • the British also get used to importing American wheat, and don't want to lose that resource
    • the British people liked Lincoln, and saw him as a champion for democracy; they were opposed to slavery, as Britain had banned it
    • these reasons add up to result in Britain's not getting involved
  • France
    • their strategy wasn't to support the South, but rather to use the conflict to expand their empire
    • they started in Mexico, and Napoleon III sent his army to invade
    • they were led by an Austrian Hapsburg, Maximilian
    • the US is to occupied with the war to do anything other than protest
    • once the war ended, the US made it clear there were ready to use force to enforce the Monroe Doctrine
    • Napoleon III pulled out of Mexico, but left Maximilian there; Maximilian was captured and executed by the Mexican forces
  • Russia
    • the Tzar remained friendly to the North during the war, not abusing his position in Alaska
    • in 1867, they offered to sell Alaska for $7 million, considering it to be a worthless icebox
    • Secretary of State Seward agreed to the purchase for several reasons:
      • gratitude for Russia's not supporting the South during the war
      • he had expansionist ideals
      • he thought that Alaska would be a strategic means of expanding US power in the Pacific
    • later oil discoveries would prove hugely profitable
• Lincoln and Slavery
  • Lincoln's original intent was to save the Union, and not bring slavery into the war
  • he didn't want to end slavery, just stop its expansion
  • early in the war, any anti-slavery actions could have alienated the borders states and turned the course of the war
  • as the war continued, it became harder to recruit
  • Lincoln decided to free the slaves
    • he would give the war a moral purpose
    • more people in the North favoured the end of slavery than they had at the beginning of the war
    • making slavery an issue would take the British out of the picture, as the British people were strongly opposed to slavery
    • in late 1862, Lincoln announced his intention to emancipate the slaves
    • the Union victory at the Battle of Antietam opened the door for Lincoln to bring slavery into the war; to some, this is a critical turning point for the war
    • 1 Jan 1863: Emancipation Proclamation
      • didn't actually end slavery
      • all slaves in Confederate-held territory were now freed
      • those that supported the North (i.e. the border states) weren't freed until the 13th Amendment
      • this was a ploy to take the moral high ground for the North, giving them a new cause to continue to fight
      • his ploy was effective, as most of the North came to believe that they were fighting to remedy a social evil
      • not until the 1865 13th Amendment would slavery be banned throughout the US

Theatres of War

• in the West, the Union will win all major campaigns
  • the Union forces are initially led by General U.S. Grant
    • they drove south along the Mississippi River, in battles at Shiloh, Fort Donelson, and Memphis
    • Farragut captured New Orleans in 1862
    • Vicksburg, Mississippi (1863) - Grant split the Confederate forces, leading to his eventual victory; this victory caused Grant's appointment as overall Union commander
  • General William T. Sherman succeeded Grant
    • moved across the South, destroying everything in his path
    • he believed that the scorched-earth policy would shorten the war and prevent further loss of life
    • the South viewed it as needless destruction
    • his drive did increase Confederate desertions, and most will agree that he did shorten the war, despite appalling damages
• in the East, there is a battle between Washington and Richmond, as each side tries to invade the other's capital
  • the Union forces suffered many defeats
  • most argue that it was just their greater resources that allowed the eventual victory; the Union simply wore out the South over time
  • Lee and Stonewall Jackson largely out-manoeuvred and out-fought the larger Army of the Potomac (the Union)
  • there were two major battles where Lee wasn't able to exploit his victory
    • Antietam
      • first battle to take place on Northern soil
      • both sides had huge losses; Lee's were such that he wasn't able to press his attack
      • this was enough of a victory for Lincoln to announce the Emancipation Proclamation
    • Gettysburg
      • the "turning point" of the war
      • losses suffered never allowed the South to mount other offensives against the North
      • convinced foreign powers that the North would win the war, and that helping the South was hopeless
      • in conjunction with Vicksburg (the day after), this provided hope to boost the North
      • opened up the west and the north for a push south and east, as per the "Anaconda Plan"
      • the North saw an end in sight for the war
• General Ulysses S. Grant
  • his tactic was to always move forward, no matter what; this was what Lincoln wanted, as opposed to McClellan's slow and careful attacks
  • he was never concerned about the losses - he had more men than Lee, and he was going to use that to his advantage
  • he was also compassionate, telling his troops, at victory, that it wasn't a cause for celebration, as they were fighting fellow Americans
  • he was also very trusting, almost naïve, a characteristic that will affect his Presidency
• Wilderness Campaign (May-June 1864)
  • the last campaign of the war
  • led by Grant
  • fighting was costly to both sides
  • Lee was never able to replace the men and equipment that he lost
  • Grant entered Richmond, and moved south to meet Sherman moving north
• Appomattox Courthouse
  • 9 April, 1865; Lee surrendered
  • this signalled the end of the Civil War
  • fighting would continue for about a month, as the remaining Confederate armies surrendered
  • over 600,000 Americans were dead; more than all other wars since, combined

Legislation

• many pieces of legislation were passed without Southern representatives in Congress
• 1861 - Morrill Tariff Act; raised tariffs
• 1862 - Homestead Act; granted land for free to farmers who lived there for 5 years
• 1862 - Legal Tender Act; allowed the use of paper money, not just coins, to fund the war
• 1862 - Morrill Land Grant Act
• 1862 - Emancipation Proclamation
• 1863 - Pacific Railway Act
• Virginia was split and West Virginia admitted to the Union
• 1863 - National Bank Act

Election of 1864

• Lincoln (Republican) ran against McClellan (Democrat) during the war
• Lincoln's "dictatorial" status and the length of the war had lost him some popularity
• Sherman's March to the Sea regained some support for Lincoln
• the "Copperheads" (in reference to the snakes) were a peace movement against Lincoln
  • they opposed the war and called it a failure
  • they wanted an immediate end by negotiation
• it was a close election: 55% to 45% of the popular vote; the electoral vote wasn't close, though
• one of the Republicans' most effective arguments was that the nation shouldn't "change horses in midstream"
• Lincoln won the election, and remained in power to end the war

Assassination of Lincoln

• 14 April 1865, 5 days after Lee's surrender, the Cabinet met to discuss the fate of the rebels
  • Lincoln opposed any attempt to designate Confederate leaders as criminals
  • he believed that there had been enough deaths already; they shouldn't be hung for treason
• that evening, he went to Ford's Theatre with this wife
  • his location was common knowledge
  • the police guard left his post long enough for John Wilkes Booth to enter and kill Lincoln
  • Booth jumped out of the booth and ran out of the theatre, yelling, in Latin, "Virginia is avenged!"
  • Jefferson Davis later acknowledged the death of Lincoln to be the worst thing that could have happened to the South, after losing the war
• 3 July 1865, three men and a woman were hanged for complicity
• Secretary of State Seward had also been attacked, but recovered
• Vice President Johnson was never attacked
• it will never be known whether Lincoln's plan for lenient reconstruction would have worked
• Johnson became the President, but he didn't have the prestige nor the tact to quickly rebuild a unified nation
• Lincoln's reputation, historically
  • he has become much more loved since the end of the Civil War and his assassination
    • hated by the Copperheads, the South, and even some in the North
  • he was hated during the war, but is now considered one of America's greatest leaders
  • as more information is found, his reputation is borne out by the "prism" of history
  • he was a dynamic, devoted wartime leader
  • lacked the executive experience, but that grew as the war progressed
  • he was patient, tactful, and firm
  • despite pressure from his own party and the Democrats, he did not waver - he insisted that the war be fought to the bitter end
  • over time, his personal qualities have been examined, and he has become loved by many
  • forbearance - he accepted abuse and criticism with good humour
  • never expressed hatred to the Confederates or to the slaveholders as people
  • believed that slavery was deeply, morally wrong
  • Second Inaugural Address (March 1865)
    • malice towards none
    • forgiveness for the South
    • care for all - there are widows and orphans on both sides
  • Gettysburg Address
    • noble ideals of democracy
    • "new nation conceived in liberty"
    • "all men … equal"
    • "government for the people, by the people"
    • resolve that the deaths of the battle would not be in vain
  • he was already working on putting the nation back together
    • charitable towards his enemies
    • generous terms of surrender
    • called for moderation, rather than hatred, from Congress and the nation
  • his personal kindness was indicated by letters of condolence for parents of dead soldiers
  • his assassination at the moment of victory and height of fame made him a martyr
  • the North mourned him as a national hero who had preserved the Union
  • the South recognises that Lincoln was the one person who might have cured the bitterness that would occur during the next 10 years