AP US: The Civil War (1861-1865)
Table of Contents
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Election of 1860
- Democratic Party meets in Charleston, SC to choose their candidate for the Presidency
- the leading candidate is Stephen Douglass, from Illinois
- the Southerners present don't want to nominate a Northerner, so they demand that Douglas publicly promise not to limit the extension of slavery, and some demand that he fully support slavery
- many delegates decide to leave, and a candidate is not yet chosen
- 2 weeks following the first convention, they meet in Baltimore
- the Democratic Party is fractured into three:
- the North and South fail to agree and separate
- in the North, the Democrats choose Stephen A. Douglas, who agrees to stay with the Freeport Doctrine
- in the South, they rename to Southern Democrats and choose Breckinridge, Buchanan's Vice President
- a third Democratic party, the Constitutional Union Party, also forms
- former Whigs from upper South and border states
- didn't share the convictions of the Southern Democrats
- also include Northern Whigs who left the Republican Party
- nominate John Bell from Tennessee
- the Democratic Party is fractured into three:
- Republican Party
- meet in Chicago, Illinois
- put together a platform that will be favourable to people in both the North and the West
- they propose:
- Homestead Law - free land for settlers
- high tariffs - assist manufacturers
- a railroad to the Pacific with Federal money
- they declare that the "normal condition" of a territory of the United States is that of freedom; while they won't limit slavery where it currently exists, they won't allow its expansion
- most had believed Seward would be selected, but Lincoln was chosen instead
- they wanted victory this year, and they were confident
- there was a general opinion that Seward couldn't lead, and they were in Chicago, so Lincoln was selected
- Two Campaigns
- Breckinridge and Bell fight for the Southern vote
- Lincoln and Douglas fight in the North
- Douglas campaigns throughout the North, while Lincoln remains quietly in Springfield
- it becomes evident that Douglas won't win, so towards the end, he drops his own campaign and instead begins to negotiate with the South to stop threats of secession
- Results
- Lincoln wins with 1.8 million votes, or about 40% (there won't be a majority with four candidates running)
- while Northerners celebrate, Southerners plan to dissolve the Union
Crittenden Compromise
- Senator Crittenden, from Kentucky, proposes amending the Constitution to pacify the South
- his plan will prohibit slavery north of 36° 30', protecting slavery everywhere in the South
- this was the line of the Missouri Compromise
- Taney's Dred Scott Obiter Dictum had said that Congress has no right to regulate property, that is, slaves
- this amendment would be the only way to overcome the Court's declaration of "unconstitutional"; adding it to the Constitution makes it constitutional
- states entering the Union after the amendment could decide to be for or against slavery on their own, either north or south of the line
- many believed that it could have appeased the South and slavery
- Lincoln rejected it, saying that it would create an eternal conflict for all land south of the US, all the way to Tierra del Fuego
- he isn't yet President, and so doesn't have a veto, but he can still influence his party
- he felt that he needed to oppose it because his platform had been against the expansion of slavery - "Honest Abe" mentality
- no other attempts at compromise will be made following this
Buchanan as "Lame Duck"
- after Lincoln's election, Buchanan becomes "official" lame duck
- the South feared that slavery would be restricted or outlawed, and began to discuss independence: their own banks, trade with Europe, etc.
- the South Carolina legislature called for a special convention and unanimously voted to secede from the Union
- in late December, they voted to take control of Federal buildings
- by January 1861, most of the South had seceded
- in February, Texas also seceded
- Lincoln can do nothing - he's not President yet
- in February 1861, leaders form the seceding states met in Montgomery, Alabama and established the Confederate States of America (CSA)
- they selected Jefferson Davis, a former Senator who had attended West Point and had much military and administrative experience, as President
- 4 March 1861: a small crowd gathered in Washington, D.C. to watch Lincoln be sworn in
- Lincoln's inaugural address calls for the South to return to the Union and be treated as a friend; the friendship of the North and the South is strained, not broken
- emphasised that he would not interfere with slavery where it already exists
- reminds them that secession is illegal
- he ends his speech by telling the secessionists that "in your hands, not mine" is the issue of civil war
The Attack on Fort Sumter (Charleston, South Carolina 12-13 April 1861)
- Major Robert Anderson informed his seniors that they only had 4-6 weeks of supplies remaining, believing that Lincoln would order an evacuation
- Lincoln decided to send unarmed boats to Charleston Harbour with supplies - and not reinforcements
- neither Lincoln or Davis wanted to order the first strike, but gaining Sumter was key to the Southern strategy
- Davis ordered the soldiers to evacuate, but they refused
- Southern troops bombarded the troop for 34 hours before the Union troops surrendered
- after this, war was inevitable
- Lincoln called on the border states to help suppress the rebellion
- Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas secede, and there are now 11 Confederate states
- Lincoln shifts his attention from finding a peaceful end to mobilising the army, and calls for 75,000 militia, thinking it will be a short war
- the South considers his arming to be a declaration of war
- nearly 1/3 of the US officers left and joined the Confederacy, including "Stonewall" Jackson and Robert E. Lee (who had been offered command of all Union forces but left with his state, Virginia)
- both sides are eager to fight
- believed the war would only last a few months
- Lincoln asked for volunteers with a 3-month agreement
Numbers
- fewer than 20,000 in the Northern Army as war began, and many of these went South
- Lincoln is able to call for 75,000 volunteers to start the war, whereas the South relies on militias to establish their army and navy
- the North has more population, money, factories, crops, railroads
- they have such an overwhelming advantage that the South is forced to fight a largely defensive war
- however, a defensive war makes a longer war, and the South doesn't have the resources for an extended conflict
- the South also hopes for British or French support
Map in 1861
- the Confederate capital was moved to Richmond to involve the border states
- these border states (Missouri, Kentucky, West Virginia, Maryland, and Delaware) will be crucial
- proximity to capitals
- navigable rivers
- resources: horses, mules, factories, huge population
- West Virginia was created from Virginia in 1863
- Virginia had seceded, and so no longer had the protection of the Constitution that required a state's permission to separate it
- West Virginia wanted to remain in the Union, so they were made a state
The Anaconda Plan
- General Winfield Scott, of Mexican-American War fame, created the Anaconda Plan
- the plan called for a gradual "strangling" of the South by:
- blockading the coasts
- "squeezing" the South by attacking from the West and the North
- capturing the Mississippi River to split the South in half
Battle of Bull Run / First Manassas (21 July 1861)
- Union troops, led by General McDowell, were eager for action, calling "On to Richmond!"
- as they moved towards Bull Run, on the way to Richmond, it was believed that the battle would be an easy win for the North
- however, the Union troops were inexperienced, whereas the Confederate troops had more fighting experience and were determined to protect their homeland
- a Virginia brigade led by Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson counter-attacked, pushing the Union back
- many Union soldiers simply ran from the battlefield
- this became a boost for Southern morale, slightly altering their plan for a defensive war
- they believed that they had better training and military superiority
- this battle made the South over-confident, and led to a drop in enlistments
- causes the Union to regroup and re-plan
- make plans for a longer and more difficult war
- Congress authorised the enlistment of 500,000 troops for three years of service
- Lincoln appoints McClellan to lead the Army of the Potomac
- General George McClellan
- a well-liked, passionate leader with strong military credentials
- he had sound strategies, on paper
- he as overly cautious, and never wanted to commit his forces - he was always convinced that the enemy had more troops, or reinforcements on the way, or some other advantage
- Lincoln eventually had to order McClellan to advance, in the Peninsular Campaign
- ultimately, he wouldn't be good enough, and was fired
Battle of the Ironclads / Battle of Hampton Roads (8-9 March 1862)
- history's first battle between armoured ships
- the USS Monitor versus the CSS Virginia (rebuilt from the remains of the USS Merrimack)
- the Merrimack sank one ship with its ram, one with its guns; it also ran some ships aground while they were fleeing the ironclad
- this was considered the worst day in US Naval History until 7 December 1941 (Pearl Harbour)
- the rest of the fleet was saved by the arrival of the Union's ironclad, the Monitor
- the Monitor was smaller than the Merrimack, presenting a smaller target; it had only two eleven-inch guns in a revolving turret (a new innovation)
- the battle was technically a draw, but the Merrimack returned to Virginia and never returned to battle; it was later destroyed by Confederate troops to prevent its capture by the advancing Union army
- Southern engineers made several noteworthy naval accomplishments:
- the H.L. Hunley sank a ship in Charleston, being the first battle submarine
- ironclad rams were used to break the Union blockade
- they built the first ironclad vessel, the Virginia / Merrimack
- "torpedoes", or mines, sank more than 40 ships
- this battle had a profound effect on naval history
- the era of the wooden ship is gone
- by war's end, the North had built another 60 ships of the Monitor class
- the British and French had also been working on similar designs
Conscription
- because of the length of the war and the lack of volunteers, both sides were forced to initiate conscription, the South about a year before the North
- those who were conscripted in the North had the option to pay another to take their place; wealthy families paid poorer ones as substitutes
- on both sides, but more so in the North, the people were strongly opposed to the draft
- some of the worst draft riots in US History were those that occurred in New York during this period
- in most wars, excitement over the war wears off quickly and the draft becomes necessary
Basic Causes of the Civil War
- Slavery
- the North came to morally oppose slavery, accepting the idea of war to end the curse of slavery
- without slavery, issues might not have come to a sufficiently decisive point to cause the war
- the North didn't offer any real solutions, they just opposed it
- Different ways of life
- different social and economic systems lead to misunderstandings
- the North is an expanding commercial and manufacturing society based on free labour
- the South is a stable agricultural society based on slave labour and the plantation system
- the South views themselves with "Southern nationalism", feeling that a different society needs different institutions
- Sectionalism
- sectionalism began to be an issue about 1820, as shown by the Missouri Compromise
- tariffs, the central bank, the railroads, states' rights, and other issues come into play
- states' rights comes to be the primary problem
- Declining Southern influence in government
- the South saw a struggle with the North for control, which they were losing
- with the North's growth, Congress became more unequal
- they viewed Lincoln as a last straw
- Pierce and Buchanan (before Lincoln) were both Northerners, but their less-strong ideas about slavery were acceptable to the South
- the Republicans, and Lincoln, strongly opposed the extension of slavery
- Weakness in leadership
- with the deaths of Calhoun, Clay, Webster - the "great triumvirate" - no other leaders of compromisers appear
- leaders nor inflame public opinion, mislead, etc.
- some suggest that with good leaders, the Civil War could have been avoided
Characteristics of the Civil War
- this was close to the last time that cavalry participated in a major war
- the first "modern" war
- railroads were used to move troops and supplies
- the concept of trench warfare was introduced, but not used too widely
- total war - civilians shared the burden of war with the military, especially in the war-torn South; the Union will adopt a scorched-earth policy, burning Southern land as they advanced
- heavy casualties on both sides
Advantages
- The North
- a strong central government; it was also the one that was recognised by the world, making it easier to deal with foreign nations
- more population, resources, money, and transportation (the railroads)
- more food - the West produced an excess of grains, allowing them to eat and trade overseas
- manufacturing - most mines and factories were in the North, although the South would develop some of their own as the war progressed
- skilled labour
- The South
- they were fighting on their own land, so the terrain was more familiar and they were inspired by the thought of being on the defensive (feels more righteous; defending their own lands and families instead of invading others')
- superior military leaders and soldiers, at least initially
- the North was industrial, with less time spent hunting and handling weapons, whereas the South had a fighting, shooting tradition
- the Northern army would develop as the war progressed, and become better disciplined and better trained
- large slave population, which will continue to produce food and free males for military service
- they hoped that the border states, France, and England would help
- they lost four of the border states at the start of the war
- no help materialised from France
- some help came from England, but very little, as they were trying to preserve neutrality
- the South had believed that England would be forced to help due to ties to the cotton industry; however, there had been so much trade that there was an excess of cotton in England for a while, and then Egypt developed as an alternative source for cotton
The War as a Major Event
- establishes a permanent, complete stabilisation of the Union
- slavery is abolished
- the nation's interests shift
- some wounds have yet to heal today; for example, there still are debates over the Confederate flag
Problems for Both Sides
- both sides need money to fund the war
- the North
- increases tariffs
- issues unbacked paper money, or "greenbacks"; their value will fluctuate based on the Union's success in the war
- sells bonds; by 1863, Congress established a national banking system to help sell bonds, allowing any 5 persons with adequate funds to create a bank, provided that they invest one third of their capital in government bonds
- highly successful in raising money for government
- the South
- had hoped that they could raise money through cotton sales, but this was limited by the Union blockade; also, Europe found other sources of cotton
- sell bonds, levy taxes, issue paper money
- bonds and paper declined rapidly in value
- taxes were too difficult to collect, as no one had any money to pay
- the North
- production of goods
- the North could, but the South didn't have the necessary resources
- the war stimulated Northern production
- their ability to produce guns, uniforms, etc. helped the North to win the war
- the Northern and Western farms produced enough food for home consumption and exports
- the South could produce sufficient arms and ammunition, but everything else was in short supply, including serious shortages of food, clothing, and sanitary supplies
- the North could, but the South didn't have the necessary resources
- the draft / conscription
- in the initial stages, the war was seen as glamorous and there were many volunteers
- later, less men volunteered for service
- both sides allowed men to pay for exemptions to the draft, either by simply paying a fee or by paying someone else to serve in his stead
- it became a "poor man's war"
- there were some of the most serious draft riots in US history, notably the 1863 riot in New York
- broad wartime powers for government
- the Confederate government forced citizens to contribute food, slaves, wagons, mules, etc.
- the Northern government took over the railroad near war zones
- both Lincoln and Davis were accused of being dictatorial
- Davis was limited by the the strong states' rights ideals of the South
- Lincoln was more able to exercise unlimited power
- Lincoln was very powerful
- however, he didn't take over the army
- he did impinge on civil liberties
- with only Congress in power, no decisions would be made; to many, in time of war, one leader is needed to make decisions
- after Fort Sumter, he expanded the army; he is Commander in Chief, but according to the Constitution, Congress appropriates funds and decides size of army; he took action without Congress (they would later approve)
- suspended the writ of habeas corpus in some districts, notably Maryland
- authorised trial of citizens in military courts
- placed limitations on speech and press
- defended these actions by saying that swift and decisive action was needed during a national crisis
- he argued that these moves were essential for the good of the nation
- however, he made no attempts to interfere with free elections
- it was not a concerted effort against Congress, it just happened
- Congress also passed laws of their own, establishing a banking system, admitting West Virginia as a state, etc.
- he argued that his actions were designed specifically to preserve the union, not to achieve his own policy
- Jefferson Davis
- some accused him of trying to become dictatorial
- but the South wouldn't allow that, as states' rights were too strong
- states ignored requests from the central government
- the confederal form of government severely weakened the Confederates
- foreign policy
- the Northern government is internationally recognised as the government of the United States
- they have diplomatic involvement with Britain, France, Russia, etc.
- they fear British or French support for the South
- both Britain and France recognise that the North is the legitimate government; if they support the South and lose, there will be troubles
- Great Britain
- the Confederates believe that Britain really needs Southern cotton, and expect all-out support from them
- a rural nation would also be less threatening to Britain, and British aristocrats weren't fond of democracy
- also, a split American continent would be beneficial for European powers
- Britain will recognise and aid the South in the early years of the war while remaining "neutral"
- Trent Affair (1861)
- a Union warship stopped the HMS Trent in the Caribbean and removed two Confederate diplomats, Mason and Slidell
- the Britain government demanded their release, even through they're Confederate diplomats on a British ship
- Britain claims violation of neutral rights, rather ironic given their violation of their own neutrality; this also hearkens back to impressment leading up to the War of 1812
- however, in 1861, the US wasn't sure where the border states, Britain, and France will fall; so, Lincoln order the release of the Confederate agents
- later in the war, the British offences become very offensive
- they begin to sell cruisers to the Confederates
- the question becomes how far the US is willing to push the neutrality issue
- after the war, the Alabama Claims ask for damages from Britain, and the US wins $15 million; Britain doesn't argue, as they know they were in the wrong, and there's not much the US can/wants to do about it
- manufacturers
- get cotton elsewhere than from the South
- make a profit selling to both the North and the South
- the British also get used to importing American wheat, and don't want to lose that resource
- the British people liked Lincoln, and saw him as a champion for democracy; they were opposed to slavery, as Britain had banned it
- these reasons add up to result in Britain's not getting involved
- the Confederates believe that Britain really needs Southern cotton, and expect all-out support from them
- France
- their strategy wasn't to support the South, but rather to use the conflict to expand their empire
- they started in Mexico, and Napoleon III sent his army to invade
- they were led by an Austrian Hapsburg, Maximilian
- the US is to occupied with the war to do anything other than protest
- once the war ended, the US made it clear there were ready to use force to enforce the Monroe Doctrine
- Napoleon III pulled out of Mexico, but left Maximilian there; Maximilian was captured and executed by the Mexican forces
- Russia
- the Tzar remained friendly to the North during the war, not abusing his position in Alaska
- in 1867, they offered to sell Alaska for $7 million, considering it to be a worthless icebox
- Secretary of State Seward agreed to the purchase for several reasons:
- gratitude for Russia's not supporting the South during the war
- he had expansionist ideals
- he thought that Alaska would be a strategic means of expanding US power in the Pacific
- later oil discoveries would prove hugely profitable
- Lincoln and Slavery
- Lincoln's original intent was to save the Union, and not bring slavery into the war
- he didn't want to end slavery, just stop its expansion
- early in the war, any anti-slavery actions could have alienated the borders states and turned the course of the war
- as the war continued, it became harder to recruit
- Lincoln decided to free the slaves
- he would give the war a moral purpose
- more people in the North favoured the end of slavery than they had at the beginning of the war
- making slavery an issue would take the British out of the picture, as the British people were strongly opposed to slavery
- in late 1862, Lincoln announced his intention to emancipate the slaves
- the Union victory at the Battle of Antietam opened the door for Lincoln to bring slavery into the war; to some, this is a critical turning point for the war
- 1 Jan 1863: Emancipation Proclamation
- didn't actually end slavery
- all slaves in Confederate-held territory were now freed
- those that supported the North (i.e. the border states) weren't freed until the 13th Amendment
- this was a ploy to take the moral high ground for the North, giving them a new cause to continue to fight
- his ploy was effective, as most of the North came to believe that they were fighting to remedy a social evil
- not until the 1865 13th Amendment would slavery be banned throughout the US
Theatres of War
- in the West, the Union will win all major campaigns
- the Union forces are initially led by General U.S. Grant
- they drove south along the Mississippi River, in battles at Shiloh, Fort Donelson, and Memphis
- Farragut captured New Orleans in 1862
- Vicksburg, Mississippi (1863) - Grant split the Confederate forces, leading to his eventual victory; this victory caused Grant's appointment as overall Union commander
- General William T. Sherman succeeded Grant
- moved across the South, destroying everything in his path
- he believed that the scorched-earth policy would shorten the war and prevent further loss of life
- the South viewed it as needless destruction
- his drive did increase Confederate desertions, and most will agree that he did shorten the war, despite appalling damages
- the Union forces are initially led by General U.S. Grant
- in the East, there is a battle between Washington and Richmond, as each side tries to invade the other's capital
- the Union forces suffered many defeats
- most argue that it was just their greater resources that allowed the eventual victory; the Union simply wore out the South over time
- Lee and Stonewall Jackson largely out-manoeuvred and out-fought the larger Army of the Potomac (the Union)
- there were two major battles where Lee wasn't able to exploit his victory
- Antietam
- first battle to take place on Northern soil
- both sides had huge losses; Lee's were such that he wasn't able to press his attack
- this was enough of a victory for Lincoln to announce the Emancipation Proclamation
- Gettysburg
- the "turning point" of the war
- losses suffered never allowed the South to mount other offensives against the North
- convinced foreign powers that the North would win the war, and that helping the South was hopeless
- in conjunction with Vicksburg (the day after), this provided hope to boost the North
- opened up the west and the north for a push south and east, as per the "Anaconda Plan"
- the North saw an end in sight for the war
- Antietam
- General Ulysses S. Grant
- his tactic was to always move forward, no matter what; this was what Lincoln wanted, as opposed to McClellan's slow and careful attacks
- he was never concerned about the losses - he had more men than Lee, and he was going to use that to his advantage
- he was also compassionate, telling his troops, at victory, that it wasn't a cause for celebration, as they were fighting fellow Americans
- he was also very trusting, almost naïve, a characteristic that will affect his Presidency
- Wilderness Campaign (May-June 1864)
- the last campaign of the war
- led by Grant
- fighting was costly to both sides
- Lee was never able to replace the men and equipment that he lost
- Grant entered Richmond, and moved south to meet Sherman moving north
- Appomattox Courthouse
- 9 April, 1865; Lee surrendered
- this signalled the end of the Civil War
- fighting would continue for about a month, as the remaining Confederate armies surrendered
- over 600,000 Americans were dead; more than all other wars since, combined
Legislation
- many pieces of legislation were passed without Southern representatives in Congress
- 1861 - Morrill Tariff Act; raised tariffs
- 1862 - Homestead Act; granted land for free to farmers who lived there for 5 years
- 1862 - Legal Tender Act; allowed the use of paper money, not just coins, to fund the war
- 1862 - Morrill Land Grant Act
- 1862 - Emancipation Proclamation
- 1863 - Pacific Railway Act
- Virginia was split and West Virginia admitted to the Union
- 1863 - National Bank Act
Election of 1864
- Lincoln (Republican) ran against McClellan (Democrat) during the war
- Lincoln's "dictatorial" status and the length of the war had lost him some popularity
- Sherman's March to the Sea regained some support for Lincoln
- the "Copperheads" (in reference to the snakes) were a peace movement against Lincoln
- they opposed the war and called it a failure
- they wanted an immediate end by negotiation
- it was a close election: 55% to 45% of the popular vote; the electoral vote wasn't close, though
- one of the Republicans' most effective arguments was that the nation shouldn't "change horses in midstream"
- Lincoln won the election, and remained in power to end the war
Assassination of Lincoln
- 14 April 1865, 5 days after Lee's surrender, the Cabinet met to discuss the fate of the rebels
- Lincoln opposed any attempt to designate Confederate leaders as criminals
- he believed that there had been enough deaths already; they shouldn't be hung for treason
- that evening, he went to Ford's Theatre with this wife
- his location was common knowledge
- the police guard left his post long enough for John Wilkes Booth to enter and kill Lincoln
- Booth jumped out of the booth and ran out of the theatre, yelling, in Latin, "Virginia is avenged!"
- Jefferson Davis later acknowledged the death of Lincoln to be the worst thing that could have happened to the South, after losing the war
- 3 July 1865, three men and a woman were hanged for complicity
- Secretary of State Seward had also been attacked, but recovered
- Vice President Johnson was never attacked
- it will never be known whether Lincoln's plan for lenient reconstruction would have worked
- Johnson became the President, but he didn't have the prestige nor the tact to quickly rebuild a unified nation
- Lincoln's reputation, historically
- he has become much more loved since the end of the Civil War and his assassination
- hated by the Copperheads, the South, and even some in the North
- he was hated during the war, but is now considered one of America's greatest leaders
- as more information is found, his reputation is borne out by the "prism" of history
- he was a dynamic, devoted wartime leader
- lacked the executive experience, but that grew as the war progressed
- he was patient, tactful, and firm
- despite pressure from his own party and the Democrats, he did not waver - he insisted that the war be fought to the bitter end
- over time, his personal qualities have been examined, and he has become loved by many
- forbearance - he accepted abuse and criticism with good humour
- never expressed hatred to the Confederates or to the slaveholders as people
- believed that slavery was deeply, morally wrong
- Second Inaugural Address (March 1865)
- malice towards none
- forgiveness for the South
- care for all - there are widows and orphans on both sides
- Gettysburg Address
- noble ideals of democracy
- "new nation conceived in liberty"
- "all men … equal"
- "government for the people, by the people"
- resolve that the deaths of the battle would not be in vain
- he was already working on putting the nation back together
- charitable towards his enemies
- generous terms of surrender
- called for moderation, rather than hatred, from Congress and the nation
- his personal kindness was indicated by letters of condolence for parents of dead soldiers
- his assassination at the moment of victory and height of fame made him a martyr
- the North mourned him as a national hero who had preserved the Union
- the South recognises that Lincoln was the one person who might have cured the bitterness that would occur during the next 10 years
- he has become much more loved since the end of the Civil War and his assassination