AP US: John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson (1825-1837)
Table of Contents
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Leaving the Era of Good Feelings: The Election of 1824
- a shift away from the "good feelings" begins about 1824
- Monroe has served two terms as President
- begin to see a breakdown in the Republican Party
- the election of 1824 has four candidates, all Republicans
- begin to see the rise of "favourite son" candidates, who are favoured by a particular state or region; they don't win nominations, but rather are recognised for their contributions
- in 1824, there are 4 "favourite sons"
- John Quincy Adams, Secretary of State, represents New England
- William Crawford represents the South
- Henry Clay represents the West
- Andrew Jackson, Senator from Tennessee, also represents the West
- all run as Republicans, representing their different areas
- the "wild card", Jackson, wins the popular vote
- but, Jackson doesn't have enough electoral votes, so the election goes to the House
- the second election to do so, first was 1800
- Jackson, Adams, and Crawford are sent to the House
- Clay loses his first try for President, but he is Speaker of the House, and will wield large influence in the election
- Crawford has a severe health problem, so he's not really in the race
- Jackson is considered "rough around the edges"
- Henry Clay uses his influence to convince the House to elect JQ Adams, even though Jackson had more of the popular vote
- this becomes known as the "Corrupt Bargain"
- Jacksonites believe that Adams promised Clay the Secretary of State position in return for the election
- Secretary of State was a stepping-stone to the Presidency
- however, Adams was a strict, moral, man and Clay was a qualified choice; only Jacksonites really believe the "corrupt bargain" story
- this will be known as the "Era of Bad Feelings", started by a corrupt bargain
- Jackson and his followers immediately being to plan for the Election of 1828; they break off and become "Democrats"
Revival of the Two Party System: The Election of 1828
Parties
- National Republicans
- leaders include Clay, Adams, and (later) Webster
- similar to the Hamiltonian Federalists
- favour the rich, industry, the North
- fear excesses of democracy
- Democrats
- led by Jackson and Van Buren
- similar to the Jeffersonian Democrat-Republicans
- strict constructionists
- favour common man, agriculture, the South, and the West
Revolution of 1828
- the political climate goes from being very nationalistic to very political
- an ugly election - mudslinging, slander, etc.
- shows a shift of power to the South and West
- Jackson is the first President to be born of poor immigrant parents
- however, he has become rich and gentlemanly by the time of his election
- "only in America" can a poor man rise to become President
- favours the common man, and says that the real power of government lies with the people
- he declares himself to be a tribune of the people
- he's viewed as "Everyman" by the people, and his simple roots resonate with the "common folk"
- business owners respect his defence of their commerce in the Battle of New Orleans
- helps the US to become more democratic
Types of Democracy
- Jeffersonian
- capable, well-educated leaders should govern in the people's interest
- reflects an agricultural society
- limited the idea of "democracy" chiefly to its political aspects
- Jacksonian
- the people themselves should manage the government
- reflects agriculture as well as rising industry
- expands democracy from its political aspects to social/economic aspects - will end debtors' prison, cause economic reforms, etc.
Political Aspects of the Jacksonian Era
- Democracy in the States
- states and the citizens have a bigger voice in government
- however, they are still subject to the federal government
- Democracy of Presidential Elections
- nominating conventions begin to be seen, giving the people a voice in presidential candidate selection
- the people write political platforms
- every party will eventually turn to this system
- Democratic View of the Presidency
- Jackson sees himself as the servant of the people - he works for them
- the President should try to do what the people want, not what his party or other influences want
- Spoils System
- Jackson gives federal jobs to his supporters
- in theory, the goal is to have more of "the people" be involved in government
- if the people have jobs, they will learn about and appreciate the government
- this system often leads to corruption; however, it does give a reason for voters to choose a political party and stick with it
Economic Aspects of the Jacksonian Era
- cheap land allows people to travel west, to develop, build, trade, and grow crops
- Trade Unions begin to develop, but any gains are matched by setbacks
Social Aspects of the Jacksonian Era
- Humanitarianism and Social Reform
- some people begin prison and mental hospital reform
- prior to reforms, mental patients were treated like criminals
- reformers such as Dorothea Dix work to bring change
- the abolitionist movement also grows
- movements to ban the "evil" alcohol grow as well
- the shift to democracy and the growth of the nation had started before the Election of 1828, but Jackson iconifies it
- an American identity begins to be created
Tariff Issues
- Tariff levels will move from those of 1816 to 1824, to 1828, to 1832, to the Tariff of 1833 which gradually lowers the rates back to those of 1816
- this whole process is started by Southern and Western leaders in order to attack Adams
- After Adams' election, Jackson supporters work to sabotage his administration
- Jacksonites (Southerners and Westerners for the large part) push a proposal to raise tariffs through Congress
- Adams was a New Englander, so he supports the tariff
- Jacksonians hope to portray Adams as someone who doesn't support the South and the West by having him pass a high tariff
- they hope for a backlash that will embarrass Adams and help Jackson's election
- Jackson doesn't actually need this help to be elected
- they want to do political damage
- Tariff of 1828
- doesn't get through Congress until just before Jackson steps in to office
- becomes known as the "Tariff of Abominations", and wreaks havoc for Jackson
- the idea was that it wouldn't actually get through Congress, but would just harm Adams
- Northern manufacturing is booming, and exports internally
- the West also exports crops internally
- the South relies on exports, so the tariff harms them the most
- but, the tariff had been pushed by Southern and Western leaders
- Nullification Crisis
- South Carolina campaigns against the Tariff and Jackson
- they object along the lines of the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions
- South Carolina Exposition and Protest
- argues for nullification of the Tariff of 1828
- this document was written, secretly, by John C. Calhoun, Jackson's Vice President
- Calhoun was raised in South Carolina, and is a leader of the South
- he's a Southerner first - shows sectional divides
- supporters of nullification become known as "nullies"
- try to pass nullification through the South Carolina legislature
- opposed by the Unionists, who don't think that states have the authority to nullify laws
- other Southern states don't support this move
- South Carolina would have benefited from Calhoun's leadership, but there was a precarious situation between him and Jackson
- Jackson didn't like Calhoun
- Martin Van Buren also fought against Calhoun
- during the election with mudslinging, scandals, etc.
- one scandal during the election involved Jackson's wife, and he blamed stress from this incident, in part, for her death
- another scandal involves Cabinet members' wives
- The Peggy Eaton Affair
- Peggy is the wife of Secretary of War Eaton, and is accused of an adulterous affair
- Jackson demands that the Cabinet wives treat her equally, as he didn't want her to suffer his wife's fate
- however, Calhoun's wife snubs her, and he follows suit
- Van Buren, a widower, lavished Peggy with attention, gaining Jackson's support while Calhoun's behaviour causes him to lose favour
- Van Buren will also make sure to point out the numerous occasions when Calhoun disagrees with Jackson's views
- Congress proposed a road in Kentucky in 1830
- Calhoun supports it
- Jackson vetoes it
- dislikes Henry Clay, as he had put Adams in office in the "corrupt bargain"
- providing federal aid for a single state was unconstitutional in his view
- Calhoun is "dismayed", as he favoured state roads with federal money and considered himself Jackson's political successor - an idea which this incident contradicts
- "Jefferson Day" Dinner in 1830
- Jackson's toast: "Our Union, it must be preserved!"
- all the others, including Calhoun, support state's rights
- Calhoun realises he's not Jackson's political successor, so he decides to become a champion for the South
- Hayne - Webster Debate
- Sen. Hayne is prominent in South Carolina
- the debate was supposed to be over the sale of Western land owned by the federal government
- the debate moves from Western land to a debate over states' rights
- Hayne discusses states' rights in favour of nullification
- Webster, the "Great Orator" from Massachusetts, responds to Hayne's rant by defining the National Theory
- defines what nationalism is
- declares that the nation would be destroyed if one state nullified any federal law
- he is pictured as a unifier, whereas Hayne is a divider
- South Carolina's rebellion continues, with small things such as lowering flags, etc.
- Calhoun still has some influence, and he gets the Tariff of 1832 passed
- lowers tariff rates slightly
- but to the South, the rates of 1828 were exorbitant, so these are still too high
- nullies still seek nullification, and they win
- Nullification Act
- the South Carolina legislature passes the Nullfication Act, nullifying the Tariffs of 1828 and 1832 within the state
- elevate Sen. Hayne to be Governor
- name Calhoun to fill Hayne's Senate seat
- threaten to secede if tariffs aren't reduced
- Jackson is tired of the political game, so he sends the army to South Carolina shortly after his re-election
- in his 4 December, 1832, annual message, he states his intention to enforce the tariff, while suggesting that rates be lowered
- Nullification Proclamation - an executive order which denounces South Carolina's actions
- Force Bill - Congress authorises use of force to collect federal taxes, even though this was already legal
*Compromise Tariff of 1833
* Calhoun asks Clay, the "Great Compromiser" for a solution, so that South Carolina isn't destroyed
* the tariff lowers rates by 10% per year for 8 years, back to the 1816 level of tariffs
* the South Carolina legislature votes to rescind nullification of the Tariffs
* also vote to nullify Force Bill, which is no longer needed; this is a face-saving measure
* reinforces the power of the federal government
* the issues are put to rest for the moment, but will lead to the outbreak of the Civil War
Banking and the Economy
- the US government didn't print paper money
- minted gold and silver coins, called specie
- their value was determined by the value of the metal in the coins
- store the specie in banks to keep it safe
- people who deposited money received a banknote validating the deposit, and could trade with this banknote instead of with the actual specie
- banks would often accumulate large amounts of gold and silver, and because most of it never left the bank, they could loan it out at interest
- banking will develop problems as it evolves
- The Second Bank of the United States
- chartered in 1816
- private, profit-making corporation
- 4/5 held privately, 1/5 held by the government
- by 1830, the bank had 29 branches throughout the US
- there are 25 directors, but Biddle is the most famous and helps the Bank to prosper
- the Bank (is supposed to):
- serve as official depository of government funds
- sell government bonds
- hold private money
- give out loans
- restrain state banks from over-issuing banknotes in relation to specie reserves
- have its own banknote to creates a sound nationwide currency
- Jackson doesn't support the 2nd Bank of the United States
- he also doesn't like Nicholas Biddle, the president of the Bank, blaming him for his loss in 1824 by funding Jackson's opponents
- Problems with the Bank
- the Bank isn't very flexible; standards differ throughout the nation
- the concept of loans with collateral doesn't work very well
- the bank is developing, and that makes it weak
- the managers of the Bank don't understand their role
- overextend credit
- are willing to loan to Northern industry, with concrete collateral, but not to the South, as crops are not considered useful collateral
- no regulation - state banks can mint money on their own and lose stability
- in McCulloch v. Maryland, Marshall had legitimised the Bank and the loose construction ideas, but that doesn't matter to Jackson
- the Bank isn't very flexible; standards differ throughout the nation
- the Second Bank under Biddle
- weathers the Panic of 1819
- it's an integral part of Clay's American System, which Jackson didn't like
- it was felt that the Bank had too much power
- it could be too restrictive when dealing with smaller banks
- the West thought the bank was suppressing entrepreneurs in the West, and didn't allow competition with Northern industry
- Jackson didn't believe that the government, or any institution of government, should have as much power as the Bank did
- the Bank isn't a real issue so much as a political tool, a "wedge issue"
- Northeastern manufacturing approves of the bank
- paid dividends on bank stock
- gives businesses loans, creates a sound currency, holds their money for them
- in the West and South, small banks, farmers, small businesses, etc. oppose the Bank
- prevented the state banks from issuing large numbers of banknotes, which would inflate prices of crops and help to pay debts
- refused loans to farmers and small business for lack of adequate collateral
- by paying dividends, the Bank had enriched a few wealthy northeastern and foreign stockholders; this augmented the rich-poor class conflict
- claimed that the Bank was illegal, unconstitutional
- they saw a conflict in interests, as the Bank engaged in politics and hired Webster as legal counsel
- enable a few private individuals (the board of directors) to monopolise the nation's currency and credit
- they refer to it as the "monster" or the "octopus"
- Biddle, aware of the hostility, was convinced to seek renewal four years before expiration in 1836
- this was also pushed as a political manoeuvre by Clay and the Whig Party
- the recharter passes through Congress easily, but Jackson vetoes it
- this becomes the Whigs' campaign issue in 1832
- but, Jackson in the era of the "common man" will campaign against the "octopus"
- Clay loses terribly - he chose the wrong issue (219-49 electoral vote)
- Jackson views this as a mandate from the people to kill the Bank
- so, he decides to cripple the Bank by withdrawing all government funds from it, but needs the support of the Secretary of the Treasury
- Roger Taney
- he was a member of the Maryland legislature, and was involved in finance and banking
- represented rural tendencies
- mistrusted monopolistic Bank
- he was Attorney General from 1831-1833
- a Jacksonian: viewed monied interests as a threat to economic democracy
- helped to draft Jackson's bank veto message
- in 1833, Jackson shifts him to become Secretary of the Treasury
- the current Secretary refused to shift the funds and kill the bank, as it would destroy the economy
- the assistant Secretary also refuses
- so, Jackson takes Taney and makes a recess appointment
- appointed to a position that requires Senate approval while Congress isn't in session, allowing him to serve without the approval of the Senate until they next meet
- Taney does Jackson's bidding so he's hated by all
- however, he will end up on the Supreme Court
- Taney withdraws the money
- the National Bank calls in loans from reckless, "wildcat", state banks who had unwise, unsecured loans and printed more money than justified by specie reserves; in part, this may have been to destabilise them in order to cause a panic
- Specie Circular
- 1836 Jackson executive order (orders from President that have the force of law)
- instructs federal land agents to accept payment for public lands only in gold or silver
- the negative impact on the economy won't affect Jackson, as he's leaving office - he gets to leave office as "everyman", while his successor deals with all his problems
Indian Relations
- by 1830, most of the territory east of the Mississippi had been divided into states
- the Democratic Party and Jackson were committed to economic progress in the states and the development of the West
- this puts them in conflict with the 25,000 Indians east of the Mississippi
- many had given up nomadic lives and were more settled
- the Cherokee, Creek, Seminole, Choctaw, and Chickasaw were known as the "Five Civilised Tribes"
- conflict is over land given to the Indians by the government's "legal" treaties
- pioneers are frustrated by lack of access to new, valuable lands
- Treaty of 1791 had recognised the Cherokee's right to part of Georgia
- Cherokee were successful at adapting, growing crops, raising cattle, growing cotton, owning slaves
- missionaries set up schools and helped the Cherokee
- the Cherokee develop an alphabet, language, newspaper, governing body, legal system, constitution, etc.
- did everything their "white neighbours" said they couldn't do - the whites said they were ruthless, uncivilised, etc.
- economic pressure increases, wanting the opening of Cherokee lands to settlers
- the population of the state increases, and demand for land is high
- rumours of gold, etc.
- mounting opposition to federal protection of Indians - however, the Indians want to keep their land, and will fight for it, as they have a contract giving them a right to live there
- Indian Removal Bill (1830)
- Jackson asks Congress to pass the bill to move the Indians west of the Mississippi
- Webster, Clay oppose it
- Davy Crockett is most opposed to it
- he's a Jacksonian Democrat, but parts ways over the treatment of Indians
- he opposed Jackson, and was voted out in the next election; Jackson was very popular
- Congress passes the bill
- the bill plans to move all Indians that are east of the Mississippi to a newly defined "Indian Territory" (Oklahoma)
- Oklahoma is a wasteland
- the Indians will, in theory, be left free to pursue their lives without interference
- intended to be a voluntary move, but groups were strongly pressured to go
- includes the 25,000 in Georgia and 100,000 elsewhere, including the "Five Civilised Tribes"
- ignores the fact that many Indians in the east aren't familiar with the west, and that tribes with ancient hostilities will be forced together
- several groups gave up and left
- the Cherokee, in 1831, turned to the courts to protest - they're civilised and will use the system
- Cherokee Nation v. Georgia
- Marshall ruled that the Cherokee had an unquestionable right to use their land, but they were not a foreign state, but rather a domestic dependent nation, so they did have standing to sue in a the US court
- "standing" is the ability to use the court system; authorisation to sue; in the federal system, foreign states have standing to sue the US if the US consents to being sued
- Worchester v. Georgia (1832)
- the Court said that Georgia cannot control the Cherokee within their territory - they had a "legal, binding agreement"
- Jackson doesn't like being told what to do, and he hates Marshall for the Bank decision and the Cherokee decision: "John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it!"
- Marshall ruled that the Cherokee had an unquestionable right to use their land, but they were not a foreign state, but rather a domestic dependent nation, so they did have standing to sue in a the US court
- Cherokee Nation v. Georgia
- the Cherokee (and other tribes) are forced to move
- plan of terrorising
- when any Indian does something wrong, settlers invade and do violence to scare them out
- Trail of Tears - many Indians die as they're moved west, but Jackson doesn't care
Sectionalism Replaces Nationalism
- notable examples include the Election of 1824 and the Missouri Compromise (1819-1820)
- loyalty goes to the state or section rather than the nation
- consider problems from a sectional standpoint rather than a national viewpoint
- the South wants to protect state rights and act against federal authority
- the North and the West believe that what's good for them is good for the nation, and use federal power to strengthen their own interests
- the South focusses on plantations and slavery
- the North focusses on industry
- the West focusses on small farms and cheap land
- begin to see the growing pains of the West, as it starts to balance power in the nation
Sectional Issues
Issue | North | South | West |
---|---|---|---|
Protective Tariffs | favour; protect factories from foreign competition | oppose; would increase cost of goods and they fear retaliating tariffs | favour; not enthusiastic, but believe long-term benefits to gain from prosperity in North |
Second Bank | favour; manufacturing and commercial interests want a stable currency | oppose; planters, farmers, debtors find it easier to obtain loans without; state banks create high prices for crops | |
Internal Improvements with Federal Money | favour; easier and cheaper to transport goods; trade with West is easier; larger market | oppose; they ship overseas, so they don't benefit; federal government is supporting North and West, not South | favour; like the North, their trade is internal |
Cheap Land | oppose; will lose workers who go West | both; favour cheap land in the cotton belt; fear land being taken by Western (non-cotton) farmers; fear land speculators that would create competition for plantation land | favour; get more land, grow more crops; want to expand |
Territorial Expansion | oppose; fear more slave states and loss of power in government | favour; want to annex Texas (slave state); want more slave states; need to replace land destroyed by cotton | favour; want more land to expand into; not all of them want to expand slavery |
Slavery | oppose | favour | no opinion |