AP US: The American Revolution (1775-1783)

Lexington and Concord

• General Gage dispatched troops to Lexington and Concord to seize stores of colonial gunpowder and capture the "ringleaders", John Hancock and Sam Adams
• shots fired, 8 colonists killed, and war began with the "shot heard 'round the world"
• as the British retreated to Boston, "cowardly" militiamen shot at the redcoats from behind trees, walls, etc.
• this attack will lead to the meeting of the Second Continental Congress

Second Continental Congress

• two groups are present, those that want immediate independence and those that want a negotiated settlement
• "Declaration of Causes and Necessities for Taking up Arms"
  • calls for an army, which will be led by Washington
  • wants to create a navy to disrupt British shipping; the colonists know they aren't strong enough to actually defeat the most powerful navy of that era
  • have a "pipe dream" of obtaining Canada
    • so, they will send a military expedition under Benedict Arnold to conquer Canada
  • no official declaration of war, but war begins
  • colonies will be governed by the Congress for the remainder of the war

Phase I: The Northern Campaign (1775-1776)

• Ethan Allen and his Green Mountain Boys
  • seize Fort Ticonderoga in New York
  • however, the centre of conflict is in Massachusetts
• Bunker Hill (June 1775)
  • actually named "Breed's Hill"
  • 1000 British soldiers are killed, only 400 Americans; the British suffer 40% casualties
  • only sheer numbers (soldiers and supplies) allow the British to win
  • the colonists' morale is boosted by their ability to hold out for so long
  • will result in the Olive Branch Petition being written by the Congress

The Olive Branch Petition

• written by the Second Continental Congress and sent to King George
• reaffirms their loyalty to the king
• asks the king to intercede with Parliament
• the Petition is ignored by the king - he doesn't like his "loyal" subjects shooting his soldiers
• Response: The Prohibitory Act
  • all colonies are declared to be in open rebellion; that is, the Crown declares war on the colonies
  • suspends all trade between British possessions and the American colonies
  • shows that efforts for negotiation have failed - it is now time for war and independence

Advantages and Disadvantages at the start of the Revolution

• British
  • Advantages
    • Larger population - more people to produce, join army, etc.
    • Mercenaries, for example the Hessians from Germany
    • Army, Navy are far superior to the colonists' - the navy is the best in the world
    • Native Americans - mostly ally with British to stop colonists' Westward expansion (the British government tried the Proclamation of 1763, but the colonists ignored it and intruded on Indian lands)
    • Tories - colonist Loyalists; hated by the Patriots
    • Slaves - promised freedom if they fight for England
  • Disadvantages
    • Global War - Britain has to "watch their back" for threats from France, Spain, and the rest of Europe
    • Logistics - lines of supply and communication are very stretched; orders from London often take months to cross the Atlantic
    • To win, the British must completely crush the colonists
• Americans
  • Advantages
    • Homeland defence - know the terrain, want freedom
    • Strong Ideals - Patriots have firmly believed, well-defined ideals that they are fighting for
    • Better leaders (over time) - George Washington is a great leader and a symbol of victory; the British have no such symbol
    • Extend war long enough to gain support of other nations
      • just a hope at the start of the war, but, eventually, experienced military officers such as Lafayette, Polaski, and von Steuben come to help
    • Guerilla Tactics - British weren't prepared for it
    • Hope for money and troops from other nations, but they will need to be successful first
    • Long war - wait until the British people get fed up (maybe)
    • [Many of these are simply perceived advantages, although it works out in the end]
  • Disadvantages
    • Small army - often, soldiers will leave to tend crops
      • only about 5000 regular troops
      • must rely on militias for help
    • command issue - who's in charge?
      • the Second Continental Congress is essentially in charge, but nobody really authorised them; also they can't tax, and war is expensive
    • "1/3 Issue" - one third of population are loyal, 1/3 are loyalists, 1/3 are neutral
    • little supplies - nobody can tax or make currency in order to buy them
      • results in lowered morale and deficient performance
      • American strategy calls for a long war - until the British give up - but they don't have the supplies to do so

The Declaration of Independence (4 July, 1776)

• June 1776
  • Richard Henry Lee introduces a resolution to the Second Continental Congress, calling for the Congress to declare the colonies to be free and independent states
  • a committee, including John Adams, Washington, and Jefferson, is established to write and justify this proposal
    • Jefferson is the primary writer, while the others edit
    • Jefferson is an Enlightenment thinker, and uses ideas from this period in his work
    • work is completed in early July 1776
    • at this point, all the colonies except New York (still largely Loyalist) had approved Lee's proposal, and were only waiting for the document to be completed
    • 4 July - the document was formally approved by the Second Continental Congress
      • It was actually ready by 2 July, but approval was delayed by other matters
• Three parts
  • Preamble
    • explains necessity for independence
    • discusses preservation of basic rights
      • "We hold these truths to be self-evident…"
      • "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness…"
    • borrows ideas from Locke's Treaties on Government and Rousseau's Social Contract
  • List of abuses
    • lists king and government's abuses
    • blame the king, not just Parliament, for their wrongs and for ignoring colonists' rights
    • justifies the colonists' actions
  • Formal declaration of war
    • for the above reasons, we have no choice: we need to be independent
• even before the document was signed, the Second Continental Congress had formed a committee to create a constitution to govern the colonies
  • hard to run a war without a government
  • Articles of Confederation are not adopted until the war's end, because of conflict between colonies' desires

Washington's Problems

• 1/3 Problem - population's ideals comprise three groups
  • Patriots
    • Paine's Common Sense is radically anti-monarchy and incendiary; it viewed the American struggle as symbolic for all those who are oppressed
      • sells 150,000 copies - a lot for that time
      • has always been a political inspiration
    • want consent of the governed
    • republican government for the common good is desired
  • Loyalists
    • support the crown, and don't want to break away
    • are strong in New York, Rhode Island, Norfolk, South Carolina, others
    • thought Mercantilism had brought benefits to the colonies and life was better under the king
  • Neutral group doesn't strongly favour either side
• State/colony loyalties
  • colonies think they're sovereign states
  • loyal to their own area, not to the whole nation
  • often, wouldn't support war when battles were physically located in other colonies
  • this attitude continues for another 6 years after the war
• Congress has no real power
  • but it has to run the war anyway
  • can't tax to raise money for the Continental Army, and colonies ignore requests for money
• Poor training until arrival of Baron von Steuben
• Washington is a natural leader who impresses people, but he's not much of a military talent
• when help from France, Germany, etc. comes, the real, experienced military officers help to make it a good army

Military Strategies

• Americans
  • attrition
    • British have a long supply line which is easily attacked
    • can't outright defeat British navy, just disrupt it
  • Guerilla tactics
    • fight an insurgent war
    • don't have to win a battle, just wear down the enemy
  • make an alliance with enemies of Britain
    • not going to be easy - Britain has beaten its enemies too often
    • colonists must demonstrate that they are serious and have a chance to win
    • the Declaration of Independence indicates that they're serious, but they still need a victory
• British
  • divide colonies in half, north and south
  • blockade ports to stop supplies from possible allies and to stop intercolonial transport
  • "divide and conquer"
    • Loyalists vs. Patriots
    • use Loyalists to help with food, housing, information, etc.
  • [this will be almost the same strategy as that used by Scott's Anaconda Plan during the Civil War]

Phase II: New York and Pennsylvania (1777-1778)

• not very many colonial successes during this period - the colonists usually lose badly
• early during this period, they force the British out of Boston, but the British then centre their forces in New York, and the colonists fare poorly
  • this doesn't improve hopes of gaining allies
• "Washington Crossing the Delaware" - painting by Leutze, 1851
  • George Washington leads attacks on Hessians at Trenton the day after Christmas
  • attack the British at Princeton shortly thereafter
  • Washington's greatest military victory up to this point
• The British Plan
  • Burgoyne (from Canada), Howe (from New York), and St. Leger (from Lake Ontario area) would converge on Albany
  • plan to end the war with this attack
  • Howe decides to conquer Philadelphia instead - he thinks he has time to go to Philadelphia and still be able to help at Albany
    • forces the others to retreat to wait for him
    • successfully captures Philadelphia, but leaves Burgoyne isolated
  • Burgoyne - "Gentleman Johnny Burgoyne"
    • has a big ego and isn't very intelligent
    • cuts through forest in New York, but progress is slow and he is observed and hampered by the colonists, Indians, and others
      • he brings so much stuff with him that he only progresses a half mile per day
    • plans to win at Saratoga; however, his supporting armies don't come, and he is defeated
    • Battle of Saratoga 1777
      • surrounded by General Gates and forced to surrender
      • "Turning Point" of the war
        • gave France confidence in the colonists' cause, leading them to support the Revolution
        • without foreign aid and escalation into a world war, most historians agree that the Americans would have lost the war
        • Burgoyne is sent home in disgrace, and Howe is fired

The Southern Strategy

• Gen. Sir Henry Clinton is the new British commander
  • he plans to focus fighting in the South, especially the Carolinas and Virginia, then move North
  • he is effective for 6 months, but then the colonists begin to gain the upper hand
  • the Southern colonists are, generally, better fighters, marksmen, and military leaders than those in the North
  • Americans begin to win a series of battles
• Britain's "Southern Strategy"
  • thought there were more Loyalists in the South
  • thought the resources in the South were more valuable and worth preserving
  • Britain wins small victories, but cannot pacify the countryside
    • Guerilla fighting, for example, Nathanial Greene, the "Fighting Quaker"

Cornwallis' Surrender at Yorktown

• The British under Cornwallis march to Yorktown, on the coast of Virginia
• in theory, they are protected by the Royal Navy
• the British control New York City and several Southern ports
• the future of the Revolution is tied to Cornwallis in Virginia
• Washington comes from the North, Lafayette from the South, and La Grasse's flotilla cuts off the British from the sea
• 17 Oct, 1781 - Cornwallis surrenders while the British band plays "The World Turned Upside Down" (according to tradition, at least)
  • British public is tired of war, demands an end
  • Lord North, Prime Minister, resigns
  • British negotiate for peace

Treaty of Paris

• US diplomats - Ben Franklin, John Jay, and John Adams work with France for a suitable end to the war
  • had good military relations with France, but diplomatic relations were poor
  • America is concerned that France would try to work out a settlement that ignores American independence, or one that tries to use an independent America for their own gains
  • So, America chooses to negotiate independently of the French
  • 1783 - American and British agreement; Congress ratifies the Treaty of Paris
  • two weeks later, the British, French, and Spanish agree to a separate treaty
• Terms
  • Britain formally and unconditionally recognises US independence
  • Boundaries of new nation
    • North: Canada border, Great Lakes
    • West: Mississippi River
    • South: Northern boundary of Spanish Florida
  • American fishing access to Newfoundland is unlimited
  • US government agrees to not interfere legally with British merchants and creditors seeking to collect debts owed by Americans
    • but, they won't force them to pay
  • US would suggest compensating Loyalists whose property had been confiscated during the war; however, they won't require this compensation
  • these two clauses will cause eventual problems with Britain, who will use them as an excuse to remain on the continent
• US Geography
  • Spain had Florida and New Orleans
  • states have land claim West of the Appalachians, but they will have to give these up

Women and Minorities

• See other notes

Two Revolutions: Historians' View of the Revolution

• American Revolution can be seen as a Civil War - Patriots vs. Loyalists
• primary goal of the fighters was to end British control
• they also sought to make America more democratic politically and socially
• historians see it as a conservative revolution - it's "boring"
  • battle to maintain status quo, to prevent change rather than effect it
  • colonies already had fundamentals of democracy
  • at war's end, no change other than the lack of British
• Revolution allows colonial elite to maintain power; for example, in New York, about 30 families controlled 3/4 of the land - they're fighting to maintain that control