AP US: The American Revolution (1775-1783)
Table of Contents
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Lexington and Concord
- General Gage dispatched troops to Lexington and Concord to seize stores of colonial gunpowder and capture the "ringleaders", John Hancock and Sam Adams
- shots fired, 8 colonists killed, and war began with the "shot heard 'round the world"
- as the British retreated to Boston, "cowardly" militiamen shot at the redcoats from behind trees, walls, etc.
- this attack will lead to the meeting of the Second Continental Congress
Second Continental Congress
- two groups are present, those that want immediate independence and those that want a negotiated settlement
- "Declaration of Causes and Necessities for Taking up Arms"
- calls for an army, which will be led by Washington
- wants to create a navy to disrupt British shipping; the colonists know they aren't strong enough to actually defeat the most powerful navy of that era
- have a "pipe dream" of obtaining Canada
- so, they will send a military expedition under Benedict Arnold to conquer Canada
- no official declaration of war, but war begins
- colonies will be governed by the Congress for the remainder of the war
Phase I: The Northern Campaign (1775-1776)
- Ethan Allen and his Green Mountain Boys
- seize Fort Ticonderoga in New York
- however, the centre of conflict is in Massachusetts
- Bunker Hill (June 1775)
- actually named "Breed's Hill"
- 1000 British soldiers are killed, only 400 Americans; the British suffer 40% casualties
- only sheer numbers (soldiers and supplies) allow the British to win
- the colonists' morale is boosted by their ability to hold out for so long
- will result in the Olive Branch Petition being written by the Congress
The Olive Branch Petition
- written by the Second Continental Congress and sent to King George
- reaffirms their loyalty to the king
- asks the king to intercede with Parliament
- the Petition is ignored by the king - he doesn't like his "loyal" subjects shooting his soldiers
- Response: The Prohibitory Act
- all colonies are declared to be in open rebellion; that is, the Crown declares war on the colonies
- suspends all trade between British possessions and the American colonies
- shows that efforts for negotiation have failed - it is now time for war and independence
Advantages and Disadvantages at the start of the Revolution
- British
- Advantages
- Larger population - more people to produce, join army, etc.
- Mercenaries, for example the Hessians from Germany
- Army, Navy are far superior to the colonists' - the navy is the best in the world
- Native Americans - mostly ally with British to stop colonists' Westward expansion (the British government tried the Proclamation of 1763, but the colonists ignored it and intruded on Indian lands)
- Tories - colonist Loyalists; hated by the Patriots
- Slaves - promised freedom if they fight for England
- Disadvantages
- Global War - Britain has to "watch their back" for threats from France, Spain, and the rest of Europe
- Logistics - lines of supply and communication are very stretched; orders from London often take months to cross the Atlantic
- To win, the British must completely crush the colonists
- Advantages
- Americans
- Advantages
- Homeland defence - know the terrain, want freedom
- Strong Ideals - Patriots have firmly believed, well-defined ideals that they are fighting for
- Better leaders (over time) - George Washington is a great leader and a symbol of victory; the British have no such symbol
- Extend war long enough to gain support of other nations
- just a hope at the start of the war, but, eventually, experienced military officers such as Lafayette, Polaski, and von Steuben come to help
- Guerilla Tactics - British weren't prepared for it
- Hope for money and troops from other nations, but they will need to be successful first
- Long war - wait until the British people get fed up (maybe)
- [Many of these are simply perceived advantages, although it works out in the end]
- Disadvantages
- Small army - often, soldiers will leave to tend crops
- only about 5000 regular troops
- must rely on militias for help
- command issue - who's in charge?
- the Second Continental Congress is essentially in charge, but nobody really authorised them; also they can't tax, and war is expensive
- "1/3 Issue" - one third of population are loyal, 1/3 are loyalists, 1/3 are neutral
- little supplies - nobody can tax or make currency in order to buy them
- results in lowered morale and deficient performance
- American strategy calls for a long war - until the British give up - but they don't have the supplies to do so
- Small army - often, soldiers will leave to tend crops
- Advantages
The Declaration of Independence (4 July, 1776)
- June 1776
- Richard Henry Lee introduces a resolution to the Second Continental Congress, calling for the Congress to declare the colonies to be free and independent states
- a committee, including John Adams, Washington, and Jefferson, is established to write and justify this proposal
- Jefferson is the primary writer, while the others edit
- Jefferson is an Enlightenment thinker, and uses ideas from this period in his work
- work is completed in early July 1776
- at this point, all the colonies except New York (still largely Loyalist) had approved Lee's proposal, and were only waiting for the document to be completed
- 4 July - the document was formally approved by the Second Continental Congress
- It was actually ready by 2 July, but approval was delayed by other matters
- Three parts
- Preamble
- explains necessity for independence
- discusses preservation of basic rights
- "We hold these truths to be self-evident…"
- "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness…"
- borrows ideas from Locke's Treaties on Government and Rousseau's Social Contract
- List of abuses
- lists king and government's abuses
- blame the king, not just Parliament, for their wrongs and for ignoring colonists' rights
- justifies the colonists' actions
- Formal declaration of war
- for the above reasons, we have no choice: we need to be independent
- Preamble
- even before the document was signed, the Second Continental Congress had formed a committee to create a constitution to govern the colonies
- hard to run a war without a government
- Articles of Confederation are not adopted until the war's end, because of conflict between colonies' desires
Washington's Problems
- 1/3 Problem - population's ideals comprise three groups
- Patriots
- Paine's Common Sense is radically anti-monarchy and incendiary; it viewed the American struggle as symbolic for all those who are oppressed
- sells 150,000 copies - a lot for that time
- has always been a political inspiration
- want consent of the governed
- republican government for the common good is desired
- Paine's Common Sense is radically anti-monarchy and incendiary; it viewed the American struggle as symbolic for all those who are oppressed
- Loyalists
- support the crown, and don't want to break away
- are strong in New York, Rhode Island, Norfolk, South Carolina, others
- thought Mercantilism had brought benefits to the colonies and life was better under the king
- Neutral group doesn't strongly favour either side
- Patriots
- State/colony loyalties
- colonies think they're sovereign states
- loyal to their own area, not to the whole nation
- often, wouldn't support war when battles were physically located in other colonies
- this attitude continues for another 6 years after the war
- Congress has no real power
- but it has to run the war anyway
- can't tax to raise money for the Continental Army, and colonies ignore requests for money
- Poor training until arrival of Baron von Steuben
- Washington is a natural leader who impresses people, but he's not much of a military talent
- when help from France, Germany, etc. comes, the real, experienced military officers help to make it a good army
Military Strategies
- Americans
- attrition
- British have a long supply line which is easily attacked
- can't outright defeat British navy, just disrupt it
- Guerilla tactics
- fight an insurgent war
- don't have to win a battle, just wear down the enemy
- make an alliance with enemies of Britain
- not going to be easy - Britain has beaten its enemies too often
- colonists must demonstrate that they are serious and have a chance to win
- the Declaration of Independence indicates that they're serious, but they still need a victory
- attrition
- British
- divide colonies in half, north and south
- blockade ports to stop supplies from possible allies and to stop intercolonial transport
- "divide and conquer"
- Loyalists vs. Patriots
- use Loyalists to help with food, housing, information, etc.
- [this will be almost the same strategy as that used by Scott's Anaconda Plan during the Civil War]
Phase II: New York and Pennsylvania (1777-1778)
- not very many colonial successes during this period - the colonists usually lose badly
- early during this period, they force the British out of Boston, but the British then centre their forces in New York, and the colonists fare poorly
- this doesn't improve hopes of gaining allies
- "Washington Crossing the Delaware" - painting by Leutze, 1851
- George Washington leads attacks on Hessians at Trenton the day after Christmas
- attack the British at Princeton shortly thereafter
- Washington's greatest military victory up to this point
- The British Plan
- Burgoyne (from Canada), Howe (from New York), and St. Leger (from Lake Ontario area) would converge on Albany
- plan to end the war with this attack
- Howe decides to conquer Philadelphia instead - he thinks he has time to go to Philadelphia and still be able to help at Albany
- forces the others to retreat to wait for him
- successfully captures Philadelphia, but leaves Burgoyne isolated
- Burgoyne - "Gentleman Johnny Burgoyne"
- has a big ego and isn't very intelligent
- cuts through forest in New York, but progress is slow and he is observed and hampered by the colonists, Indians, and others
- he brings so much stuff with him that he only progresses a half mile per day
- plans to win at Saratoga; however, his supporting armies don't come, and he is defeated
- Battle of Saratoga 1777
- surrounded by General Gates and forced to surrender
- "Turning Point" of the war
- gave France confidence in the colonists' cause, leading them to support the Revolution
- without foreign aid and escalation into a world war, most historians agree that the Americans would have lost the war
- Burgoyne is sent home in disgrace, and Howe is fired
The Southern Strategy
- Gen. Sir Henry Clinton is the new British commander
- he plans to focus fighting in the South, especially the Carolinas and Virginia, then move North
- he is effective for 6 months, but then the colonists begin to gain the upper hand
- the Southern colonists are, generally, better fighters, marksmen, and military leaders than those in the North
- Americans begin to win a series of battles
- Britain's "Southern Strategy"
- thought there were more Loyalists in the South
- thought the resources in the South were more valuable and worth preserving
- Britain wins small victories, but cannot pacify the countryside
- Guerilla fighting, for example, Nathanial Greene, the "Fighting Quaker"
Cornwallis' Surrender at Yorktown
- The British under Cornwallis march to Yorktown, on the coast of Virginia
- in theory, they are protected by the Royal Navy
- the British control New York City and several Southern ports
- the future of the Revolution is tied to Cornwallis in Virginia
- Washington comes from the North, Lafayette from the South, and La Grasse's flotilla cuts off the British from the sea
- 17 Oct, 1781 - Cornwallis surrenders while the British band plays "The World Turned Upside Down" (according to tradition, at least)
- British public is tired of war, demands an end
- Lord North, Prime Minister, resigns
- British negotiate for peace
Treaty of Paris
- US diplomats - Ben Franklin, John Jay, and John Adams work with France for a suitable end to the war
- had good military relations with France, but diplomatic relations were poor
- America is concerned that France would try to work out a settlement that ignores American independence, or one that tries to use an independent America for their own gains
- So, America chooses to negotiate independently of the French
- 1783 - American and British agreement; Congress ratifies the Treaty of Paris
- two weeks later, the British, French, and Spanish agree to a separate treaty
- Terms
- Britain formally and unconditionally recognises US independence
- Boundaries of new nation
- North: Canada border, Great Lakes
- West: Mississippi River
- South: Northern boundary of Spanish Florida
- American fishing access to Newfoundland is unlimited
- US government agrees to not interfere legally with British merchants and creditors seeking to collect debts owed by Americans
- but, they won't force them to pay
- US would suggest compensating Loyalists whose property had been confiscated during the war; however, they won't require this compensation
- these two clauses will cause eventual problems with Britain, who will use them as an excuse to remain on the continent
- US Geography
- Spain had Florida and New Orleans
- states have land claim West of the Appalachians, but they will have to give these up
Women and Minorities
- See other notes
Two Revolutions: Historians' View of the Revolution
- American Revolution can be seen as a Civil War - Patriots vs. Loyalists
- primary goal of the fighters was to end British control
- they also sought to make America more democratic politically and socially
- historians see it as a conservative revolution - it's "boring"
- battle to maintain status quo, to prevent change rather than effect it
- colonies already had fundamentals of democracy
- at war's end, no change other than the lack of British
- Revolution allows colonial elite to maintain power; for example, in New York, about 30 families controlled 3/4 of the land - they're fighting to maintain that control